Coats of arms and flags depicting scorpions, exotic turbans and caps, hooked noses, red hair, crimson, black, or even blue faces, unnaturally twisted poses, obscene gestures, and maliciously aggressive grimaces. The art of the medieval West employed a multitude of symbols that marked and denounced non-believers (Jews, Muslims, and pagans), heretics, other sinners, and outcasts. All of them were associated with the 'father of lies,' the devil, and with each other, as if they were part of a global conspiracy against Christian society. Pagan Romans were sometimes depicted wearing Jewish hats and pseudo-Jewish inscriptions on their clothing, Jews in Muslim turbans, and Muslims were accused of worshiping idols and invoking ancient Roman gods. In a new book, medievalist Mikhail Maizuls shows how the image of the enemy was constructed from the 12th to the 16th centuries, how the mechanisms of stigmatization operated in the space of images and on city streets, and how techniques that emerged in the Middle Ages carried over into the pamphlets, posters, and caricatures of the modern era.